Nursing Care Plan for Acute Pain: Comprehensive Guide for Effective Diagnosis and Care

Acute pain, characterized as an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience, is frequently associated with tissue damage. The onset of acute pain can vary, ranging from gradual to sudden, and is typically expected to resolve within three months, distinguishing it from chronic pain. Effective nursing care plans are crucial in managing acute pain, starting with accurate diagnosis and extending to tailored interventions. This article provides an in-depth exploration of acute pain, focusing on creating comprehensive nursing care plans to address patient needs effectively.

Delving into the Causes of Acute Pain

The primary cause of acute pain is tissue damage, stemming from physical, biological, or chemical injury agents. Psychological factors and exacerbations of pre-existing medical conditions can also contribute to acute pain. Understanding these causes is fundamental in formulating an accurate nursing diagnosis and subsequent care plan.

• Biological Injury Agents: These encompass harmful microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi that can inflict damage and pain within the body. Examples include infections and inflammatory responses triggered by pathogens.
• Chemical Injury Agents: Typically caustic substances, these agents can cause harm through various mechanisms, including burns, irritation, and tissue destruction. Exposure to strong acids, alkalis, or certain industrial chemicals are examples.
• Physical Injury Agents: This category includes the commonly recognized causes of pain resulting from physical trauma, such as fractures, lacerations, surgical incisions, and blunt force injuries. These injuries directly disrupt tissue integrity, leading to pain.

Recognizing the Signs and Symptoms: A Diagnostic Approach

Identifying the signs and symptoms of acute pain is a critical step in the nursing diagnosis process. These indicators are categorized into subjective reports from the patient and objective observations made by the nurse.

Subjective Data (Patient-Reported Symptoms)

• Verbal Reports of Pain: The most direct indicator, where patients describe their pain experience in their own words.
• Pain Expressions: Non-verbal cues such as crying, moaning, or facial grimacing that suggest the presence and intensity of pain.
• Description of Unpleasant Sensations: Patients may describe the pain using terms like “pricking,” “burning,” or “aching,” providing qualitative details about their discomfort.

Objective Data (Nurse-Assessed Signs)

• Vital Sign Changes: Significant fluctuations in vital signs, such as increased heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate, often accompany acute pain as part of the body’s stress response.
• Alterations in Appetite and Eating Patterns: Pain can reduce appetite and disrupt normal eating habits due to discomfort or the body’s physiological response to pain.
• Sleep Pattern Disturbances: Acute pain frequently interferes with sleep, leading to insomnia, frequent awakenings, or restless sleep.
• Guarding or Protective Behaviors: Patients may instinctively protect the painful area by limiting movement, assuming specific postures, or physically guarding the affected body part.

Alt text: A nurse explaining different pain scales to a patient for effective pain assessment, crucial for a nursing care plan acute diagnosis.

Expected Outcomes in Acute Pain Management

Setting realistic and measurable outcomes is essential in nursing care planning for acute pain. These outcomes guide interventions and provide a basis for evaluating the effectiveness of the care plan.

• Pain Relief Reporting: The patient will verbally express a reduction in pain intensity and improved comfort levels.
• Pain Scale Reduction: The patient’s pain rating on a standardized pain scale will decrease from the initial assessment to a level deemed acceptable by the patient, ideally moving towards a 0/10 rating.
• Vital Signs Within Normal Limits: The patient will exhibit stable vital signs within their normal physiological range, indicating pain is being effectively managed and the body’s stress response is reduced.
• Restoration of Appetite and Sleep: The patient will demonstrate a return to normal appetite and regular sleep patterns, reflecting improved overall comfort and well-being.

Comprehensive Nursing Assessment for Acute Pain Diagnosis

A thorough nursing assessment is the cornerstone of developing an effective nursing care plan for acute pain. This involves gathering subjective and objective data to understand the patient’s pain experience fully.

1. Pain Characteristics Assessment: Utilizing the PQRST mnemonic is a systematic approach to evaluate pain comprehensively. This method ensures that all critical aspects of pain are explored and documented.

• P = Provocation/Palliation:

  • Provocation: What activities or factors initiated the pain? Understanding the onset helps identify triggers and potential causative factors.
  • Palliation: What actions or interventions alleviate the pain? Identifying relieving factors guides the selection of effective pain management strategies.
  • Aggravation: What factors worsen the pain? Recognizing aggravating factors helps avoid or minimize these triggers. Examples include movement, specific positions, or environmental stressors.

• Q = Quality:

  • Describing the nature of the pain using descriptive terms like “sharp,” “dull,” “stabbing,” “burning,” “crushing,” “throbbing,” “nauseating,” “shooting,” “twisting,” or “stretched.” This qualitative description helps differentiate between types of pain, such as nociceptive or neuropathic pain.

• R = Region or Radiation:

  • Location: Where is the pain situated? Pinpointing the pain location is crucial for diagnosis and targeted treatment.
  • Radiation: Does the pain spread to other areas? Understanding pain radiation patterns can indicate the source and extent of the underlying issue.

• S = Scale or Severity:

  • Using a pain scale (0-10) to quantify pain intensity. This provides a baseline measurement and allows for tracking changes in pain levels over time. Assessing the pain’s impact on daily activities is also important to understand its functional implications.

• T = Timing:

  • Onset: When did the pain begin? Knowing the onset helps correlate pain with potential events or triggers.
  • Duration: How long does the pain last? Understanding the duration helps differentiate between acute and intermittent pain patterns.
  • Frequency: How often does the pain occur? Assessing frequency helps identify patterns and potential cyclical triggers.
  • Pattern: Is the pain constant, intermittent, or fluctuating? Recognizing the pain pattern aids in diagnosis and management planning.

2. Pain Rating Assessment: Employing pain scales provides a standardized method for patients to communicate their pain intensity. This is vital for monitoring pain levels and evaluating treatment effectiveness.

• Numerical Rating Scales (NRS): Patients rate their pain on a numerical scale, typically from 0 (no pain) to 10 (worst pain imaginable).
• Visual Analog Scales (VAS): Patients indicate their pain level along a continuous line, often anchored by “no pain” and “worst pain.”
• Categorical Scales: These scales use descriptive words or phrases to categorize pain intensity, such as “mild,” “moderate,” “severe,” or may include visual aids like faces to represent pain levels, especially useful for children or those with language barriers.

3. Underlying Cause Identification: Determining the etiology of pain is essential for targeted treatment. Acute pain often arises from an identifiable cause, such as injury, surgery, or an acute medical condition.

• Investigate recent injuries, surgical procedures, or acute illnesses that could be the source of pain.
• Consider medical history for pre-existing conditions that may contribute to or exacerbate acute pain.
• If the cause is unclear, further diagnostic evaluation may be necessary to rule out serious underlying conditions.

4. Pain Type Differentiation: Distinguishing between nociceptive and neuropathic pain mechanisms is critical as it influences the choice of pain management strategies.

• Nociceptive Pain: This type arises from actual or potential tissue damage and is typically described as sharp, aching, or throbbing. It responds well to traditional analgesics.
• Neuropathic Pain: This results from damage or dysfunction of the nervous system and is often described as burning, shooting, or tingling. It may require specific medications targeting nerve pain.

5. Aggravating Factors Identification: Recognizing factors that exacerbate pain is crucial for minimizing discomfort and improving patient comfort.

• Assess environmental factors like noise and light, which can increase stress and pain perception.
• Explore intrapersonal factors such as anxiety and emotional distress, which can amplify pain experiences.
• Consider cultural and social factors that may influence pain expression and coping mechanisms.

6. Signs and Symptoms Observation: Objective signs and symptoms provide valuable data to support the patient’s subjective pain reports.

• Monitor vital signs for physiological responses to pain, such as increased heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure.
• Observe for non-verbal pain indicators like facial expressions, body posture, and guarding behaviors.
• Assess for changes in functional status, such as mobility limitations or reluctance to engage in activities.

7. Non-Pharmacological Methods Assessment: Evaluating the patient’s current use and willingness to use non-pharmacological pain relief methods is important for holistic pain management.

• Inquire about prior experiences with non-pharmacological techniques like heat/cold application, massage, relaxation techniques, or distraction.
• Assess patient preferences and beliefs regarding these methods to tailor recommendations appropriately.
• Educate patients about the benefits of combining non-pharmacological and pharmacological approaches for enhanced pain relief.

8. Pain Relief Expectations Assessment: Understanding patient expectations regarding pain relief is essential for setting realistic goals and ensuring patient satisfaction with the care plan.

• Discuss acceptable pain levels with the patient, recognizing that complete pain elimination may not always be achievable, especially in acute settings.
• Collaboratively establish comfort-function goals, balancing pain relief with the ability to engage in necessary activities and recovery processes.
• Ensure the patient understands the plan of care and the rationale behind pain management strategies.

9. Age and Developmental Stage Consideration: Age and developmental stage significantly impact pain perception, expression, and management in patients.

• Utilize age-appropriate pain assessment tools for pediatric patients, such as facial expression scales or behavioral observation.
• Recognize that elderly patients may have altered pain responses due to age-related physiological changes or cognitive impairments.
• Adapt communication and pain management strategies to suit the patient’s developmental level and cognitive abilities.

Alt text: A nurse uses a facial pain scale to assess a child’s acute pain level, essential in pediatric nursing care plan acute diagnosis.

Nursing Interventions for Effective Acute Pain Management

Nursing interventions are crucial for implementing the nursing care plan and achieving the desired outcomes for patients experiencing acute pain. These interventions span pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches, tailored to the patient’s individual needs.

1. Administering Prescribed Analgesics: Pharmacological management is often a cornerstone of acute pain relief. Analgesics should be administered promptly and as prescribed, considering the pain ladder approach.

• Over-the-counter (OTC) analgesics: For mild to moderate pain, acetaminophen, aspirin, or ibuprofen can be effective first-line treatments.
• Prescription Pain Relievers: Corticosteroids or COX-2 inhibitors may be prescribed for moderate pain or inflammatory conditions.
• Opioid Analgesics: For severe acute pain, especially post-surgical or trauma-related, opioids may be necessary. These should be used judiciously, with careful monitoring for side effects.
• Adjuvant Medications: Antidepressants or anticonvulsants may be used for specific types of pain, such as neuropathic pain syndromes.

2. Following the Pain Ladder Approach: The WHO pain ladder provides a stepwise approach to analgesic administration, aligning medication strength with pain intensity.

• Step 1 (Mild Pain): Non-opioid analgesics (NSAIDs, acetaminophen) are used as the initial step.
• Step 2 (Moderate Pain): Weak opioids (codeine, tramadol, hydrocodone) are added, often in combination with non-opioids.
• Step 3 (Severe Pain): Potent opioids (morphine, fentanyl, oxycodone, hydromorphone) are employed for severe or persistent pain, potentially with non-opioids for multimodal analgesia.

3. Patient-Controlled Analgesia (PCA) Pump Assessment: PCA pumps offer patients greater control over their pain management, particularly for post-operative pain.

• Patient Candidacy Assessment: Evaluate if the patient is physically and cognitively able to operate the PCA pump and understand its function.
• PCA Administration: PCA allows patients to self-administer a pre-set dose of opioid analgesics intravenously, within prescribed limits. This provides timely pain relief and reduces anxiety related to pain control.

4. Pain Re-evaluation Post-Intervention: Regularly reassessing pain levels after interventions is crucial to determine efficacy and adjust the care plan as needed.

• Timing of Reassessment: Reassess pain approximately 30 minutes after intravenous medication and 60 minutes after oral medication to gauge effectiveness.
• Effectiveness Evaluation: Compare pre- and post-intervention pain scores to determine if pain reduction goals are being met.
• Care Plan Adjustment: If pain is not adequately controlled, consider adjusting medication, dosage, route, or adding non-pharmacological interventions.

5. Patient Education on Pain Management: Empowering patients with knowledge about pain management is essential for active participation in their care.

• Medication Timing Education: Instruct patients to take pain medication proactively, especially before activities that may exacerbate pain, to prevent pain escalation.
• Pain Medication Regimen: Explain the medication regimen, including drug names, dosages, frequency, and potential side effects.
• Non-Pharmacological Techniques Education: Educate patients on non-pharmacological options and encourage their use in conjunction with medications.

6. Encouraging Patient Feedback: Patient feedback is invaluable in refining and personalizing pain management strategies.

• Open Communication: Encourage patients to openly communicate about their pain experience, including effectiveness of interventions and any concerns.
• Feedback Utilization: Use patient feedback to tailor the care plan, adjust interventions, and optimize pain control.
• Pain Diaries: Consider using pain diaries for patients to track their pain levels, medication intake, and intervention effectiveness, facilitating better communication and adjustments.

7. Immediate Response to Pain Reports: Prompt response to patient pain reports is crucial for alleviating suffering and building trust.

• Timely Intervention: Respond to pain complaints without delay to minimize patient distress and prevent pain intensification.
• Anxiety Reduction: Quick responses can reduce patient anxiety associated with pain and fear of unrelieved suffering.

8. Promoting Rest Periods: Adequate rest is vital for pain management and overall recovery.

• Restful Environment: Create a quiet, comfortable environment with minimal noise and reduced lighting to promote rest.
• Uninterrupted Rest: Minimize interruptions to allow for restorative sleep and rest periods.

9. Encouraging Non-Pharmacological Therapies: Non-pharmacological approaches offer complementary pain relief and can reduce reliance on medication.

• Relaxation and Breathing Exercises: Teach techniques like deep breathing, progressive muscle relaxation, and guided imagery to reduce tension and pain perception.
• Music Therapy: Utilize calming music to promote relaxation and distraction from pain.
• Complementary Therapies: Introduce options like biofeedback, acupressure, massage, meditation, yoga, and guided imagery as adjuncts to pharmacological treatment.

10. Stimuli Removal and Distraction: Diversion techniques can effectively reduce pain perception by redirecting attention.

• Distraction Techniques: Engage patients in activities that divert their attention from pain, such as games, reading, conversation, or watching movies.
• Environmental Control: Minimize environmental stressors that can exacerbate pain, such as excessive noise or bright lights.

11. Side Effects Monitoring: Careful monitoring for medication side effects is essential for patient safety and comfort.

• Opioid Side Effects: Monitor for common opioid side effects, including sedation, nausea, vomiting, constipation, respiratory depression, and mental clouding.
• Side Effect Management: Implement preventive and therapeutic measures for side effects, such as antiemetics for nausea, laxatives for constipation, and respiratory monitoring for opioid-induced respiratory depression.

12. Pain Relief Anticipation: Proactive pain management is more effective than reactive management.

• Preventive Approach: Administer analgesics preemptively, especially before anticipated painful procedures or activities.
• Around-the-Clock Dosing: For continuous pain, consider around-the-clock analgesic administration rather than solely PRN dosing to maintain consistent pain control.

13. Referral to Therapies: Physical and occupational therapies play a crucial role in long-term pain management and functional recovery.

• Physical Therapy: Referrals to physical therapy can help patients regain mobility, strength, and function, especially after injuries or surgeries.
• Occupational Therapy: Occupational therapists assist patients in adapting daily routines and environments to minimize pain and improve functional independence.

14. Compress Application: Thermal therapies can provide non-pharmacological pain relief.

• Cold Compresses: Apply ice packs or cold compresses to reduce inflammation, swelling, and pain, particularly for acute injuries.
• Warm Compresses: Use heating pads or warm baths to relieve muscle stiffness, cramps, and pain associated with chronic conditions.

15. RICE for Minor Injuries: For minor injuries, RICE (Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation) is a fundamental first-aid approach.

• Rest: Immobilize and rest the injured area to prevent further damage and promote healing.
• Ice: Apply ice packs wrapped in a towel for 10-20 minutes at a time to reduce swelling and pain.
• Compression: Use elastic bandages to provide support and minimize swelling, ensuring it is not too tight to impede circulation.
• Elevation: Elevate the injured area above heart level to reduce swelling and promote venous return.

Alt text: Applying the RICE method, including ice, to manage acute pain from a minor ankle injury, a key element in basic nursing care plan acute diagnosis.

Nursing Care Plan Examples for Acute Pain

Individualized nursing care plans are essential for addressing the unique needs of each patient experiencing acute pain. These plans should be dynamic, adapting to the patient’s changing condition and response to interventions. Below are examples of nursing care plans for various acute pain scenarios, demonstrating the application of assessment, outcomes, and interventions discussed.

Care Plan #1: Post-Orthopedic Surgery Pain

Diagnostic Statement: Acute pain related to orthopedic surgical procedure of the left lower extremity secondary to bone fracture and inflammation, as evidenced by heart rate of 112 bpm, guarding of the left lower extremity, patient reports of pain, and pain scale of 8/10.

Expected Outcomes:

• Patient will report a reduced pain scale from 8 to less than 3/10 within 4 hours.
• Patient will verbalize increased pain tolerance with movement by the end of the shift.
• Patient will ambulate independently with tolerable pain by the end of the shift.
• Patient will appear well-rested by the end of the shift.

Assessments:

1. Characterize pain using PQRST to understand pain comprehensively.
2. Determine stage of healing process post-surgery to anticipate pain fluctuations.
3. Assess nighttime pain, common after orthopedic surgery, to tailor evening interventions.
4. Evaluate patient’s comfort with non-pharmacological methods for integrated pain relief.
5. Determine need for PCA for optimal pain control post-operatively.

Interventions:

1. Administer prescribed analgesics promptly and educate patient on medication use.
2. Re-evaluate pain 30 minutes post-intervention to assess effectiveness.
3. Educate patient about pain management strategies, including medication timing and side effects.
4. Combine non-pharmacological (e.g., ice, positioning) and pharmacological therapies for synergistic effect.

Care Plan #2: Acute Bronchitis Pain

Diagnostic Statement: Acute pain related to acute bronchitis secondary to viral infection, as evidenced by patient reports of chest and throat soreness, pain scale of 8/10, lack of appetite, and grimacing while coughing and speaking.

Expected Outcomes:

• Patient will report decreased pain scale from 8 to less than 3/10 within 4 hours of nursing interventions.
• Patient will verbalize decreased pain with breathing within 4 hours of nursing interventions.
• Patient will manifest respiratory rate within normal limits within 2 hours of nursing interventions.
• Patient will appear well-rested by the end of the shift.

Assessments:

1. Characterize pain to differentiate bronchitis-related discomfort.
2. Observe cough characteristics to understand pain exacerbation factors.
3. Identify viral cause of bronchitis to address underlying condition.

Interventions:

1. Administer antitussive medication as ordered PRN to relieve cough and throat soreness.
2. Seek patient feedback on pain interventions to optimize care.
3. Teach proper coughing and breathing exercises to strengthen respiratory muscles and reduce pain.
4. Administer corticosteroids cautiously, if ordered, to reduce inflammation and cough severity.

Care Plan #3: Psychological Distress-Related Pain

Diagnostic Statement: Acute pain related to psychological distress secondary to anxiety and fear, as evidenced by patient verbalizing pain, moaning and crying, narrowed focus and altered passage of time, and pallor.

Expected Outcomes:

• Patient will demonstrate a reduction in crying within 1 hour of nursing interventions.
• Patient will report a decreased pain scale of less than 3/10 within 4 hours of nursing interventions.
• Patient will appear well-rested by the end of the shift.

Assessments:

1. Determine contributing societal, environmental, intrapersonal, and psychological factors to pain.
2. Identify triggers causing anxiety and fear to address root cause.
3. Check psychological and emotional status to guide holistic interventions.

Interventions:

1. Provide presence and reassurance to alleviate fear and anxiety.
2. Allow rest periods in a calm environment to reduce fatigue-related pain.
3. Promote non-pharmacological approaches like music therapy and relaxation exercises to reduce stress-related pain.

Care Plan #4: Chemical Burn Pain

Diagnostic Statement: Acute pain related to skin and tissue damage secondary to chemical burns, as evidenced by patient reports of burning pain rated 6/10, restlessness when lying down, and antalgic positioning to avoid pressure on the back.

Expected Outcomes:

• Patient will report pain less than 3/10 pain scale within 4 hours of nursing interventions.
• Patient will verbalize relief of pain within 4 hours of nursing interventions.
• Patient will appear well-rested by the end of the shift.

Assessments:

1. Assess extent of affected area to determine severity and guide treatment.
2. Ask about patient’s expectations for pain relief to align goals and interventions.
3. Note presence of blisters to assess burn depth and infection risk.

Interventions:

1. Advise patient to avoid further chemical stimuli to prevent exacerbation.
2. Decontaminate affected area with water irrigation to remove chemical agents.
3. Relieve pain with prescribed analgesics, monitoring for effectiveness and side effects.
4. Teach patient when to seek medical attention for burn complications and ongoing care.

Care Plan #5: Diabetic Neuropathy Pain

Diagnostic Statement: Acute pain related to nerve damage secondary to diabetic neuropathy, as evidenced by reports of burning sensation to lower extremities and positioning to ease pain.

Expected Outcomes:

• Patient will report pain is relieved or controlled to a manageable level.
• Patient will adhere to the prescribed pharmacological regimen for pain management.

Assessments:

1. Evaluate pain characteristics and intensity using appropriate pain scales.
2. Assess patient’s management of underlying diabetic neuropathy to address contributing factors.
3. Assess patient’s usual pain management strategies for neuropathy to tailor interventions.
4. Assess patient’s feet for complications related to neuropathy, such as sores or reduced sensation.
5. Monitor vital signs and skin color for physiological pain indicators.

Interventions:

1. Encourage verbalization of feelings about pain to assess coping and emotional needs.
2. Administer analgesics as indicated, titrating to maximum dosage as needed for pain control.
3. Provide or promote non-pharmacological pain management methods for holistic relief.
4. Collaborate in treating underlying diabetes and proactively manage neuropathic pain.

Care Plan #6: Labor Pain

Diagnostic Statement: Acute pain related to the labor process as evidenced by diaphoresis, facial grimacing, and irritability.

Expected Outcomes:

• Patient will engage in non-pharmacologic measures to reduce discomfort/pain during labor.
• Patient will report pain at a manageable level throughout the labor process.

Assessments:

1. Evaluate discomfort level through verbal and nonverbal cues to understand pain experience.
2. Assess labor stage by recording contraction frequency, duration, and intensity to guide interventions.
3. Perform vaginal examination to assess cervical dilation and labor progression.

Interventions:

1. Provide/encourage comfort measures such as massage, repositioning, and thermal therapies.
2. Provide pain medication as ordered, considering labor stage and patient preferences.
3. Recommend client void every 1–2 hours to reduce bladder distention and discomfort.
4. Offer encouragement, information about labor process, and positive reinforcement to reduce anxiety.
5. Provide a quiet, ventilated, dimly lit environment for optimal relaxation and rest.

References

1. Ackley, B.J., Ladwig, G.B.,& Makic, M.B.F. (2017). Nursing diagnosis handbook: An evidence-based guide to planning care (11th ed.). Elsevier.
2. Doenges, M.E., Moorhouse, M.F., & Murr, A.C. (2019). Nursing care plans Guidelines for individualizing client care across the life span (10th ed.). F.A. Davis Company.
3. Gulanick, M., & Myers, J. L. (2014). Nursing care plans: Diagnoses, interventions, and outcomes. Elsevier Health Sciences.
4. Herdman, T. H., Kamitsuru, S., & Lopes, C. (Eds.). (2024). NANDA-I International Nursing Diagnoses: Definitions and Classification, 2024-2026. Thieme. 10.1055/b000000928
5. HSS. (2020, August 18). Managing pain after orthopedic surgery. https://www.hss.edu/playbook/managing-pain-after-orthopedic-surgery/
6. Johns Hopkins Medicine. (2021, August 8). Acute bronchitis. Johns Hopkins Medicine, based in Baltimore, Maryland. https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/acute-bronchitis
7. MedlinePlus. (n.d.). Pain. MedlinePlus – Health Information from the National Library of Medicine. Retrieved February 2023, from https://medlineplus.gov/pain.html
8. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.). Biological agents – Overview | Occupational safety and health administration. https://www.osha.gov/biological-agents
9. Physiology, pain – StatPearls – NCBI bookshelf. (2021, July 26). National Center for Biotechnology Information. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK539789/
10. PubMed Central (PMC). (n.d.). A systematic review of non-pharmacological interventions used for pain relief after orthopedic surgical procedures. Retrieved February 2023, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7480131/
11. SpringerLink. (n.d.). World Health Organization analgesic ladder. Retrieved February 2023, from https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-87266-3_67
12. Union Health. (n.d.). Pain management after orthopedic surgery terre haute, Indiana (IN), union health. Retrieved February 2023, from https://www.myunionhealth.org/blogs/pain-management-after-orthopedic-surgery
13. WebMD. (2007, January 1). Chemical burns. Retrieved February 2023, from https://www.webmd.com/first-aid/chemical-burns#091e9c5e80010a27-3-10