The postpartum period is a transformative time for new mothers, marked by significant physical and emotional adjustments as they recover from childbirth and embrace their new maternal role. In the hospital setting, nurses play a crucial role in monitoring and supporting these women during their initial recovery. This period is not without its challenges; hormonal shifts and the immense life change can predispose women to mental health issues such as postpartum depression, affecting 6.5% to 20% of women. Concerns about breastfeeding, infant bonding, and overall well-being are also frequently voiced by new mothers within the hospital environment. Studies indicate that up to 50% of mothers may discontinue breastfeeding early due to perceived insufficient milk supply, highlighting the need for robust support in the hospital.
Postpartum complications can pose serious health risks, and the rise in maternal mortality rates, peaking at 1,178 per 100,000 live births in 2021, underscores the critical importance of vigilant nursing care in the hospital. As frontline healthcare professionals, nurses are uniquely positioned to observe, assess, and intervene, ensuring early detection and management of potential issues. By developing individualized care plans, nurses can address the specific needs of each postpartum patient, considering factors like health disparities related to ethnicity and socioeconomic background to deliver truly holistic care in the hospital setting.
Common Nursing Diagnoses in Postpartum Hospital Care
In the hospital, nurses frequently encounter a range of nursing diagnoses related to postpartum care. Recognizing these common diagnoses and implementing appropriate interventions are essential for ensuring the well-being of new mothers during their hospital stay.
Impaired Parenting
In some instances, new parents may face challenges in providing a nurturing and safe environment for their newborn. Hospital nurses are often the first healthcare providers to identify difficulties in parent-infant bonding and parenting capabilities.
Nursing Diagnosis
Impaired Parenting
Potentially Related Factors
- History of childhood abuse or neglect
- Unplanned or unwanted pregnancy
- Socioeconomic stressors and lack of resources
- Parental immaturity
- Deficient knowledge of infant care
- Maternal or infant physical illness
- Parental psychological conditions
Defining Characteristics (Evidenced By)
- Displays of dissociation, rejection, or aggression towards the infant
- Demonstrated lack of basic caretaking skills
- Verbalization of inability or unwillingness to care for the child
- Inconsistent or inappropriate childcare arrangements; unsafe home environment reported
Desired Outcomes
- Parent(s) will identify and access available resources to enhance parenting skills and build a robust support network while in the hospital.
- Parent(s) will demonstrate understanding of healthy parenting styles and infant bonding techniques before discharge.
- Parent(s) will explore and verbalize options such as guardianship or adoption if appropriate, within the hospital support system.
- Parent(s) will initiate concrete steps towards creating a safer and more nurturing home environment, with hospital resources and referrals.
Nursing Assessment in Hospital Setting
- Therapeutic Communication: Engage in active listening to understand parental frustrations and concerns within the hospital environment.
- Barrier Identification: Assess for specific barriers within the hospital and upon discharge that might hinder the provision of a thriving environment for the infant.
- Psychological Assessment: Evaluate the impact of maternal depression or other psychological factors on parenting capacity, utilizing hospital mental health resources.
- Infant Safety First: Continuously assess the infant’s safety and well-being. If concerns arise, initiate protocols for contacting hospital social services or child protective services.
Nursing Interventions in Hospital Setting
- Education and Demonstration: Model positive parent-infant interactions and demonstrate essential infant care skills. Educate parents on normal infant development and age-appropriate behaviors to foster confidence.
- Resource Connection: Facilitate access to hospital and community resources to address socioeconomic challenges. Reduce stigma by normalizing the need for parenting support and help-seeking behaviors within the hospital.
Postpartum Nursing Diagnoses: A visual guide to common diagnoses and care plans for new mothers in a hospital setting, aiding nurses in effective patient care.
Readiness for Enhanced Parenting
Many new parents are eager to improve their parenting skills and knowledge. In the hospital, nurses can identify and support this readiness for enhanced parenting, especially considering that the average age for first-time mothers presents unique economic and social challenges.
Nursing Diagnosis
Readiness for Enhanced Parenting
Potentially Related Factors
- Single parenthood
- Socioeconomic constraints
- Limited social support network
- Maternal or paternal physical or psychological health issues
- Knowledge deficit regarding infant care
Defining Characteristics (Evidenced By)
- Expresses anxiety or uncertainty about parenting abilities
- Demonstrates lack of knowledge regarding essential parenting skills
- Absence of concrete plans for infant care and support
- Verbally expresses a desire to improve parenting skills
Desired Outcomes
- Parent(s) will articulate specific, achievable changes to create a healthier environment for the infant, utilizing hospital resources.
- Parent(s) will identify and access relevant hospital and community resources to support enhanced parenting.
- Parent(s) will develop a preliminary plan to pursue personal or professional goals that will positively impact their ability to care for their child, with hospital discharge planning support.
Nursing Assessment in Hospital Setting
- Knowledge Assessment: Assess the parent’s current knowledge of infant care, newborn behaviors, and safety precautions, specifically related to hospital and home transition.
- Emotional Exploration: Provide a compassionate and non-judgmental space for parents to express anxieties and concerns about their new role within the hospital setting.
- Resource Awareness: Evaluate the parent’s awareness of hospital and community resources available to them. Explore existing support systems and their comfort level in seeking assistance.
Nursing Interventions in Hospital Setting
- Skill-Based Education: Demonstrate and provide hands-on teaching of essential infant care skills, such as feeding, diapering, and safe holding techniques. Encourage return demonstrations to assess learning and build confidence before hospital discharge.
- Discharge Planning and Resource Navigation: Collaborate with parents to develop a discharge plan that includes connections to community resources, parenting classes, and support groups. Address anxieties and encourage open communication regarding concerns.
Ineffective Breastfeeding
Breastfeeding is widely recognized for its benefits, yet many mothers encounter challenges. Ineffective breastfeeding is a common concern in the postpartum hospital setting, and nurses are vital in providing support and guidance. Statistics from the CDC highlight a significant drop in exclusive breastfeeding rates after hospital discharge, emphasizing the need for effective in-hospital interventions.
Nursing Diagnosis
Ineffective Breastfeeding
Potentially Related Factors
- Insufficient knowledge of breastfeeding techniques and benefits
- Inadequate support systems within the hospital and at home
- Infant’s ineffective suck-swallow coordination
- Maternal breast pain or discomfort
- Perceived or actual insufficient milk production
- Maternal ambivalence towards breastfeeding
Defining Characteristics (Evidenced By)
- Infant’s inability to latch effectively to the breast
- Infant displays fussiness or crying shortly after breastfeeding attempts
- Insufficient infant weight gain or weight loss
- Persistent nipple pain or soreness beyond the first week
- Maternal perception of inadequate milk supply
- Incomplete breast emptying after breastfeeding sessions
Desired Outcomes
- Patient will demonstrate effective breastfeeding techniques, including proper positioning and latch, within the hospital stay.
- Patient will report adequate milk production and infant satisfaction with breastfeeding before discharge.
Nursing Assessment in Hospital Setting
- Risk Factor Assessment: Identify modifiable risk factors for ineffective breastfeeding to tailor interventions and support within the hospital.
- Breastfeeding Knowledge Assessment: Evaluate the mother’s understanding of breastfeeding, addressing any myths or misinformation in a hospital education setting.
- Physical Breast Assessment: Assess for physical barriers such as nipple issues, engorgement, or history of breast surgery that may impact breastfeeding success.
- Infant Sucking Reflex Assessment: Early assessment of the infant’s sucking reflex is crucial for timely intervention and support within the hospital.
Nursing Interventions in Hospital Setting
- Breastfeeding Education: Provide comprehensive education on breastfeeding techniques, positioning, latch, and frequency. Encourage questions and address concerns in a supportive hospital environment.
- Lactation Support and Planning: Facilitate consultation with a hospital lactation consultant. Develop a breastfeeding plan, addressing positioning, latch techniques, and feeding cues. Present bottle-feeding as an alternative if needed, ensuring proper techniques are taught.
- Skin-to-Skin Promotion: Encourage immediate and prolonged skin-to-skin contact post-delivery to promote breastfeeding initiation and milk supply within the hospital.
- Comfort and Relaxation: Promote a comfortable and relaxed breastfeeding environment in the hospital to facilitate let-down reflex and successful breastfeeding sessions.
Infection Risk
Postpartum infections are a significant concern in the hospital setting, affecting 5% to 7% of postpartum women. These infections are serious complications that can increase maternal morbidity and mortality, necessitating vigilant nursing assessment and intervention in the hospital.
Nursing Diagnosis
Risk for Infection
Potentially Related Factors
- Trauma during childbirth, including perineal tears or episiotomy
- Retained placental fragments
- Cesarean section incision
- Mastitis (breast infection)
Defining Characteristics (Evidenced By – Risk Factors)
- Presence of surgical incisions or perineal trauma
- Invasive procedures during labor and delivery
- Prolonged rupture of membranes
- Compromised immune system
Desired Outcomes
- Patient will remain free from signs and symptoms of infection throughout their hospital stay.
- Patient’s vital signs will remain within normal limits, indicating absence of infection.
Infection Risk Assessment in Hospital Setting
- Physical Examination: Regularly assess for localized signs of infection at potential sites such as perineum, cesarean incision, breasts, and uterus. Document and report any swelling, tenderness, redness, or unusual discharge.
- Vital Signs Monitoring: Monitor vital signs, particularly temperature and heart rate, for early indicators of systemic infection.
- Laboratory Monitoring: Review white blood cell counts and other relevant lab results for signs of infection, as ordered by the physician.
Infection Risk Interventions in Hospital Setting
- Infection Prevention Protocols: Adhere strictly to hospital infection control protocols, including hand hygiene, sterile technique for wound care, and appropriate catheter care.
- Wound Care Management: Provide meticulous care for perineal lacerations, episiotomies, and cesarean incisions. Assess incision sites regularly for signs of infection (redness, edema, ecchymosis, drainage, approximation – REEDA).
- Patient Education: Educate the patient about signs and symptoms of infection, emphasizing when and how to report concerns to nursing staff.
Risk for Pain
Effective pain management is crucial for postpartum recovery. While pain management is prioritized during labor and delivery, many mothers continue to experience significant pain in the days and weeks following birth, requiring ongoing assessment and intervention in the hospital. A study in Finland highlighted that 83% of first-time mothers utilize epidural analgesia, underscoring the prevalence of pain experienced during childbirth and the postpartum period.
Nursing Diagnosis
Risk for Pain
Potentially Related Factors
- Vaginal delivery trauma (perineal tears, episiotomy)
- Cesarean birth incision
- Uterine contractions (afterpains)
- Breast engorgement
- Hemorrhoids
Defining Characteristics (Evidenced By – Risk Factors)
- Recent vaginal or cesarean delivery
- Reports of perineal or abdominal discomfort
- Visible perineal trauma or surgical incision
- Uterine tenderness upon palpation
- Breast engorgement and tenderness
Desired Outcomes
- Patient will report pain level at a manageable level (e.g., ≤ 4/10) within a specified timeframe after nursing interventions in the hospital.
- Patient will verbalize improved comfort and pain relief throughout their hospital stay.
- Patient will demonstrate effective use of pain management techniques taught in the hospital.
Risk for Pain Assessment in Hospital Setting
- Pain Risk Identification: Assess individual risk factors for postpartum pain based on delivery method, presence of trauma, and pre-existing conditions. Review labor and delivery records for details of birth trauma or surgical complications.
- Pain Assessment: Regularly assess and document pain levels using a standardized pain scale (e.g., 0-10 numeric rating scale). Inquire about pain location, quality, aggravating and alleviating factors.
Risk for Pain Interventions in Hospital Setting
- Pharmacological Pain Management: Administer prescribed analgesics (oral, IV, epidural) as ordered. Monitor for effectiveness and side effects. Collaborate with physician for adjustments as needed.
- Non-Pharmacological Pain Management: Implement non-pharmacological pain relief measures such as ice packs, heat application, sitz baths, position changes, and relaxation techniques.
- Comfort and Support Measures: Provide supportive care to enhance comfort, including proper positioning, perineal care, and assistance with ambulation.
Caregiver Role Strain Risk
The transition to motherhood, especially when coupled with other caregiving responsibilities, can lead to caregiver role strain. With over 50% of Americans over 40 already juggling care for aging parents and children, the addition of a newborn can significantly increase stress. Hospital nurses are well-positioned to assess for and mitigate caregiver role strain in new mothers.
Nursing Diagnosis
Risk for Caregiver Role Strain
Potentially Related Factors
- Pre-existing caregiver responsibilities for aging parents or other children
- Limited social support network
- History of burnout or fatigue
- Infant with complex care needs
- Maternal health complications
Defining Characteristics (Evidenced By – Risk Factors)
- Expresses feelings of overwhelm or being stretched too thin
- Reports lack of time for self-care or personal needs
- Displays signs of fatigue, irritability, or anxiety
- Limited participation in social activities or hobbies
Desired Outcomes
- Patient will verbalize strategies to manage feelings of overwhelm and prevent burnout before hospital discharge.
- Patient will identify and access available hospital and community resources for caregiver support.
- Patient will demonstrate ability to meet infant’s needs without experiencing significant physical or emotional strain during hospital stay.
Risk for Caregiver Role Strain Assessment in Hospital Setting
- Caregiver Situation Assessment: Inquire about the patient’s home situation, existing caregiving responsibilities, and available support systems. Active listening can reveal hidden stressors and anxieties.
- Burnout Risk Assessment: Assess for signs and symptoms of burnout, including fatigue, emotional exhaustion, and feelings of reduced personal accomplishment.
Risk for Caregiver Role Strain Interventions in Hospital Setting
- Realistic Expectations and Boundary Setting: Discuss healthy expectations for new parents and encourage setting boundaries to protect their well-being.
- Support and Skills Building: Provide practical support and education on infant care skills to enhance confidence and reduce anxiety. Offer respite care information and encourage utilization of hospital social work services.
Fatigue
Postpartum fatigue is exceedingly common, affecting a vast majority of new mothers. Research indicates that mothers of young children experience higher fatigue levels regardless of sleep duration. Fatigue significantly impacts well-being and can hinder a mother’s ability to care for herself and her infant effectively in the hospital and at home.
Nursing Diagnosis
Fatigue
Potentially Related Factors
- Physiological demands of childbirth and lactation
- Sleep deprivation and disrupted sleep patterns
- Physical discomfort and pain
- Emotional stress and anxiety
- Underlying health conditions (e.g., anemia, thyroid disorders)
Defining Characteristics (Evidenced By)
- Reports of persistent tiredness and exhaustion
- Lack of physical and mental energy
- Increased irritability and mood changes
- Difficulty concentrating
- Perceived need for increased rest
Desired Outcomes
- Patient will verbalize improved energy levels and reduced fatigue symptoms by discharge.
- Patient will implement fatigue management strategies learned in the hospital to promote rest and recovery at home.
Fatigue Assessment in Hospital Setting
- Fatigue Level Assessment: Assess the patient’s subjective fatigue level using a fatigue scale or visual analog scale. Inquire about sleep patterns, energy levels throughout the day, and impact of fatigue on daily activities.
- Underlying Cause Identification: Evaluate for potential underlying causes of fatigue, including pain, sleep disturbances, and emotional distress. Review vital signs and lab results (e.g., hemoglobin) to rule out physiological factors.
Fatigue Interventions in Hospital Setting
- Rest Promotion: Encourage and facilitate rest periods during the hospital stay. Minimize interruptions and create a restful environment.
- Symptom Management: Address contributing factors to fatigue, such as pain and discomfort. Provide comfort measures and pharmacological pain relief as needed.
- Education on Fatigue Management: Educate the patient on healthy sleep habits, energy conservation techniques, nutrition, and the importance of seeking support.
Situational Low Self-Esteem
The postpartum period can be a vulnerable time for women’s self-esteem. Existing low self-esteem, particularly prevalent among young women with studies showing up to 23% of teen girls experiencing this, can be exacerbated by the challenges of new motherhood. Hospital nurses can identify and support women experiencing situational low self-esteem.
Nursing Diagnosis
Situational Low Self-Esteem
Potentially Related Factors
- Body image changes related to pregnancy and childbirth
- Perceived or actual difficulties in infant care
- Lack of social support and positive feedback
- History of depression or low self-esteem
- Negative perceptions of self as a mother
Defining Characteristics (Evidenced By)
- Self-critical statements and negative self-evaluation
- Focus on perceived failures or shortcomings
- Withdrawal from social interactions
- Expressed feelings of inadequacy or worthlessness as a mother
- Decreased engagement in infant care activities
Desired Outcomes
- Patient will verbalize increased self-acceptance and positive self-regard by hospital discharge.
- Patient will demonstrate increased confidence in their ability to care for their infant while in the hospital.
- Patient will identify and access resources for ongoing self-esteem support post-discharge.
Situational Low Self-Esteem Assessment in Hospital Setting
- Mental State Assessment: Assess the patient’s emotional state through direct questioning and active listening. Identify verbal cues indicating negative self-perception, self-doubt, and hopelessness.
- Impact on Infant Care: Observe for behaviors suggesting low self-esteem affecting infant care, such as reluctance to engage with the infant, lack of responsiveness to infant cues, or expressions of inadequacy in caregiving abilities.
Situational Low Self-Esteem Interventions in Hospital Setting
- Positive Reframing and Affirmation: Help the patient reframe negative thoughts and focus on their strengths and accomplishments as a new mother. Provide positive reinforcement and acknowledge their efforts.
- Resource Referral: Refer to hospital social work or mental health services for ongoing counseling and support if needed.
- Education and Empowerment: Educate the patient on the impact of negative self-talk and encourage seeking help for self-esteem issues.
Deficient Fluid Volume Risk
Postpartum hemorrhage, a significant obstetric emergency, affects millions of women globally. Excessive blood loss can rapidly lead to deficient fluid volume, a life-threatening condition requiring prompt recognition and management in the hospital setting.
Nursing Diagnosis
Risk for Deficient Fluid Volume
Potentially Related Factors
- Postpartum hemorrhage (uterine atony, lacerations, retained placental fragments)
- Excessive diaphoresis
- Vomiting
- Diarrhea
Defining Characteristics (Evidenced By – Risk Factors)
- Excessive vaginal bleeding (saturation of perineal pad within 15 minutes, passage of large clots)
- Uterine atony (soft, boggy uterus)
- Hypotension
- Tachycardia
- Decreased urine output
- Pallor, dizziness, weakness
Desired Outcomes
- Patient will maintain stable vital signs, including blood pressure within normal limits (e.g., > 90/60 mm Hg).
- Patient will exhibit adequate tissue perfusion, evidenced by warm, dry skin and strong peripheral pulses.
- Patient will maintain urine output of at least 30 mL/hour.
- Patient’s hemoglobin and hematocrit levels will remain within acceptable limits.
Deficient Fluid Volume Risk Assessment in Hospital Setting
- Vital Signs Monitoring: Continuously monitor vital signs, particularly blood pressure and heart rate, for early signs of hypovolemia.
- Bleeding Assessment: Assess the amount and characteristics of vaginal bleeding (lochia). Quantify blood loss as accurately as possible. Assess uterine tone and position.
- Dehydration Assessment: Evaluate for signs of dehydration, including mucous membrane dryness, poor skin turgor, and concentrated urine.
Deficient Fluid Volume Risk Interventions in Hospital Setting
- Hemorrhage Management: Implement hospital protocols for postpartum hemorrhage management. This may include uterine massage, administration of uterotonic medications (oxytocin, misoprostol, methylergonovine), and fluid resuscitation.
- Fluid Replacement: Initiate intravenous fluid administration as ordered to restore intravascular volume. Monitor intake and output closely.
- Electrolyte Management: Monitor electrolyte levels and replace electrolytes as needed, following physician orders.
- Blood Product Administration: Prepare for and administer blood products (packed red blood cells, fresh frozen plasma, platelets) as indicated and ordered.
- Vital Signs and Perfusion Monitoring: Continue vigilant monitoring of vital signs, oxygen saturation, and perfusion status. Report any concerning changes immediately.
Ineffective Tissue Perfusion Risk
Ineffective tissue perfusion can be a grave consequence of postpartum hemorrhage. Severe blood loss reduces oxygen delivery to vital organs, potentially leading to organ damage and life-threatening complications. Rapid nursing intervention is critical in the hospital setting.
Nursing Diagnosis
Risk for Ineffective Tissue Perfusion (Peripheral, Cerebral, Cardiopulmonary, Renal)
Potentially Related Factors
- Postpartum hemorrhage and hypovolemia
- Anemia (low hemoglobin)
- Hypotension
Defining Characteristics (Evidenced By – Risk Factors)
- Significant blood loss
- Hypotension and tachycardia
- Pallor, cool and clammy skin
- Altered mental status (restlessness, confusion)
- Decreased urine output
- Weak peripheral pulses
Desired Outcomes
- Patient will maintain adequate tissue perfusion, evidenced by stable vital signs, warm and dry skin, good capillary refill, and appropriate urine output.
- Patient will demonstrate improved mental status and orientation.
Ineffective Tissue Perfusion Risk Assessment in Hospital Setting
- Hemodynamic Monitoring: Closely monitor vital signs (heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, oxygen saturation) for indicators of hypoperfusion.
- Perfusion Assessment: Assess peripheral perfusion (skin color, temperature, capillary refill, peripheral pulses), cerebral perfusion (level of consciousness, orientation), and renal perfusion (urine output).
- Laboratory Data Review: Review lab results, including hemoglobin, hematocrit, arterial blood gases, BUN, and creatinine, for indicators of tissue hypoxia and organ dysfunction.
Ineffective Tissue Perfusion Risk Interventions in Hospital Setting
- Maximize Oxygen Delivery: Administer supplemental oxygen as ordered to improve oxygenation.
- Fluid and Blood Product Resuscitation: Continue aggressive fluid and blood product resuscitation as per physician orders and hospital protocols.
- Vasoactive Medication Administration: Administer vasoactive medications (vasopressors) as ordered to support blood pressure and improve tissue perfusion.
- Continuous Hemodynamic Monitoring: Maintain continuous monitoring of vital signs and hemodynamic parameters. Report any deterioration in patient condition immediately.
- Positioning: Elevate legs (if not contraindicated) to promote venous return and improve perfusion.
Imbalance in Mood and Behavior Risk
Postpartum mood changes are common, but an imbalance in mood and behavior can signify more serious underlying conditions like postpartum depression or anxiety. Hospital nurses are crucial in recognizing and addressing these mood imbalances.
Nursing Diagnosis
Risk for Imbalance in Mood and Behavior
Potentially Related Factors
- Hormonal fluctuations postpartum
- Pain and physical discomfort
- Sleep deprivation and fatigue
- History of mood disorders or postpartum depression
- Lack of social support
Defining Characteristics (Evidenced By – Risk Factors)
- Reports of significant mood swings and emotional lability
- Increased irritability, anxiety, or sadness
- Feelings of overwhelm or inability to cope
- Sleep disturbances beyond normal postpartum fatigue
- Social withdrawal
Desired Outcomes
- Patient will demonstrate improved mood stability and emotional regulation during hospital stay.
- Patient will verbalize understanding of postpartum mood changes and available resources.
- Patient will agree to connect with mental health resources for ongoing support post-discharge.
Imbalance in Mood and Behavior Risk Assessment in Hospital Setting
- Mood and Affect Assessment: Assess the patient’s mood, affect, and emotional state through observation and direct questioning. Utilize standardized screening tools for postpartum depression and anxiety (e.g., Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale).
- Risk Factor Identification: Explore risk factors for postpartum mood disorders, including history of mental illness, lack of support, and stressful life events.
- Physical Symptom Assessment: Rule out physical causes of mood changes, such as pain, fatigue, infection, or postpartum hemorrhage.
Imbalance in Mood and Behavior Risk Interventions in Hospital Setting
- Emotional Support and Reassurance: Provide a supportive and empathetic environment. Offer reassurance and normalize postpartum mood changes while differentiating them from more serious disorders.
- Education and Information: Educate the patient about hormonal shifts and emotional changes in the postpartum period. Provide information on postpartum depression and anxiety, warning signs, and available resources.
- Resource Connection: Facilitate referrals to hospital social work, mental health professionals, and community support groups.
- Comfort Measures: Address physical discomfort and promote rest to improve overall well-being and mood.
Conclusion
Nursing diagnoses are fundamental in guiding postpartum care within the hospital setting. By accurately identifying potential and actual health issues, nurses can develop and implement targeted care plans to support new mothers during their initial recovery. Early recognition and intervention for conditions such as impaired parenting, breastfeeding difficulties, infection risk, pain, caregiver strain, fatigue, low self-esteem, fluid volume deficit, ineffective tissue perfusion, and mood imbalances are crucial for optimizing maternal outcomes and ensuring a positive postpartum experience in the hospital and beyond. Continuous professional development and adherence to evidence-based practices are essential for nurses providing postpartum care to meet the evolving needs of new mothers and their families.
Additional Readings and Resources
Learn more about postpartum diagnoses and nursing plans with these resources:
References (References from original article, if available, would be listed here).
